Full Text
A Theoretical Framework Using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) with Salutogenic Design and Positive Technology to Enhance Workplace Wellbeing
Abstract
The study examines the potential of combining Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) and Augmented Reality (AR) to address the psychological needs of healthcare professionals in hybrid physical and digital environments. Prior research has primarily examined the effects of Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) and Augmented Reality (AR) on patient experiences, with limited attention to their potential impact on healthcare employees. Furthermore, the combination of EGD and AR as a communication platform remains underdeveloped.
This study involved 14 healthcare administrative employees in the development of three prototypes within a simulated healthcare environment. The research adopted an experimental case study approach, utilising an adapted double-diamond process that emphasised collaboration with participants to explore potential future work recovery scenarios. The first phase, Stage 1: Discovery, combined focus groups and semi-structured interviews, employing a thematic-inductive analysis to generate insights. These findings informed the prototype design in Stage 2: Prototyping, guided by the Gioia methodology. Finally, in Stage 3: Testing, participants evaluated the prototypes using a Think-Aloud protocol, followed by in-depth focus groups and semi-structured interviews to assess their experiences.
Findings revealed that augmented graphics can help alleviate workplace stress, which includes capturing attention and encouraging reflection on employee wellbeing. Using the EGDAR framework—a theoretical model integrating Self-Determination Theory's (SDT) three psychological needs (Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness) with Salutogenic Design and Positive Technology—the research study evaluates whether such settings can enhance wellbeing and work recovery. The framework suggests that these three interventions are positioned as tools for self-care, promoting engagement with content and facilitating social connections.
The study concludes that EGD-AR serves as a vital component of broader work recovery strategies, offering potential to enhance employee engagement, self-care, and social cohesion in the workplace.
1. Introduction
The context for this study has shifted dramatically toward prioritising healthcare workers' wellbeing, emphasising the need for supportive policies, ergonomic designs, and leadership strategies to reduce burnout and enhance productivity (Bienkowska et al. 2022; Poon et al. 2022; Roberts et al. 2021). The growing strain on healthcare workers due to increased job demands, emotional exhaustion, and burnout—particularly during the pandemic—underscores the need for improved workplace design and mental health support. These issues highlight the interconnected challenges affecting not only healthcare workers but also patient outcomes (Australian Government 2019; Hall et al. 2016; National Mental Health Commission 2020).
Clear communication and well-designed physical environments are now identified as vital for ensuring employee satisfaction and high-quality patient care (Ashkanasy et al. 2014; Ayoko & Ashkanasy 2020; Prakash 2010). The physical work environment plays a crucial role, with factors like ergonomic conditions, air quality, and access to nature contributing significantly to health and satisfaction (Abouelela 2022; Dreyer et al. 2018; Hedge 2016; Kirillova et al. 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic has further heightened the importance of workplace design, as healthcare workers face increased stress, burnout, and resignations due to high demands and inadequate resources (Dobson et al. 2021; Letourmeau 2021; Smallwood et al. 2021). Mandatory overtime and insufficient staffing exacerbate these challenges, impacting both worker wellbeing and the quality of patient care (Forooraghi et al. 2020; Hall et al. 2016). This shift in focus has made it clear that a positive workplace culture must be supported by a physical environment and policies that actively enhance workers' mental and psychological wellbeing, enabling them to deliver quality care and improve patient outcomes (Digest 2017; Foster 2020; Hahtela et al. 2017; Sergeant 2012; Wood 2018).
To address this need, this paper introduces the EGDAR theoretical framework, a novel interdisciplinary tool for designing and evaluating workplace wellbeing interventions. The EGDAR framework integrates three key theoretical concepts: Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Salutogenic Design (SD), and Positive Technology (PT). By synthesising these theories, the framework provides a comprehensive foundation for creating supportive environments that meet employees' fundamental psychological needs, thereby fostering sustained motivation and overall wellbeing.
This manuscript first details the theoretical underpinnings of the research through a literature review. It then introduces the EGDAR framework, explaining how its components are integrated to guide design practice. Finally, it presents an exploratory case study, which applies the framework to develop and analyse augmented graphic interventions in a healthcare setting, serving as a practical demonstration of its utility.
2. Literature Review
This literature review provides the theoretical foundation for the EGDAR framework by exploring three key fields that, when synthesised, inform a holistic approach to workplace wellbeing. First, we examine Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which offers a psychosocial lens by identifying the core psychological needs that drive human motivation and vitality. Next, we delve into Salutogenic Design, a conceptual approach that focuses on creating health-promoting physical environments rather than merely preventing illness. Finally, we review the principles of Positive Technology, which explores the deliberate use of technology to enhance human flourishing and positive experiences. By synthesising these complementary bodies of knowledge, this review establishes the conceptual groundwork for our proposed framework, demonstrating how a design-led approach can address the multifaceted nature of employee wellbeing in a comprehensive and integrated manner.
2.1. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation and personality development that focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT posits that humans have three innate and universal psychological needs that, when satisfied, are essential for psychological growth and wellbeing (Deci & Ryan 2015):
Autonomy: The need to feel a sense of choice and control over one’s actions, rather than feeling pressured or coerced. In the workplace, this translates to employees feeling they can initiate actions independently and have influence over their work (Deci & Ryan 1987).
Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one’s tasks and interactions (Van den Broeck et al. 2010). This involves a sense of mastery and confidence in one’s abilities, which is vital for sustained engagement and productivity (Gaggioli et al. 2017).
Relatedness: The need to feel a sense of belonging, connection and acceptance by others. A supportive social environment at work, characterised by trust and empathy, is vital for satisfying this need (Ryan & Deci 2017).
Previous research acknowledges the influence of both heritable (Barry & Jenkins 2007; Lykken & Tellegen 1996) and environmental factors on wellbeing (Diener, Lucas & Scollon 2006; Haybron 2013; MacCulloch 2003). This study specifically explores how environmental factors, such as visual graphics and augmented reality technologies, can be designed to support these three basic psychological needs and, in turn, enhance workplace wellbeing.
2.2. Salutogenic Design (SD)
Salutogenesis, a concept developed by Aaron Antonovsky, focuses on the factors that support human health and wellbeing, rather than on the causes of disease (Roskams & Haynes 2020). Salutogenic Design (SD) applies these principles to the built environment, creating spaces that actively promote health. The core of salutogenic architecture is distilled into three principles:
Manageability: The capacity to manage daily activities and meet personal needs (Golembiewski 2017). Design strategies that support manageability address functional needs while promoting autonomous motivation and a sense of control over one's environment.
Comprehensibility: The ability to understand one’s environment, encompassing both physical and psychosocial aspects. SD enhances comprehensibility by creating environments that are intuitive and provide a sense of security, reducing anxiety and improving orientation (Golembiewski 2017).
Meaningfulness: The belief that one has the resources to cope with challenges and that the effort is worthwhile. Meaningful environments can strengthen an individual's resolve and foster a sense of purpose, often through biophilic elements or design that connects people to a larger community (Abdelaal & Soebarto 2019; Mazuch 2017).
While widely applied in hospital settings to enhance patient recovery, the potential of SD in consideration with SDT to enhance the wellbeing of healthcare workers themselves remains an underexplored area.
2.3. Positive Technology (PT)
Positive Technology (PT) is a field of study that integrates wellbeing objectives with technology design to enhance personal experiences and promote positive emotions within the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) framework (Gaggioli et al. 2017). Aligned with positive psychology, PT aims to facilitate flourishing and optimal functioning. Key concepts in PT include:
Hedonic Devices: These technologies create engaging digital interactions that support wellbeing through pleasure and enjoyment, such as mindfulness apps or aesthetically pleasing interfaces (Peters, Calvo & Ryan 2018).
Eudaimonic Happiness: This concept emphasises satisfaction derived from tasks that align with an individual’s competencies and contribute to personal growth (Gaggioli et al. 2017). In technology, this is often seen in rehabilitation games or apps that tailor challenges to a user’s abilities (Sullivan 2019).
Social Technologies: These technologies are designed to enhance interpersonal connections and community awareness, such as collaborative platforms or virtual reality environments that foster a sense of belonging (Peters et al. 2018).
The potential of PT to address the psychological and social challenges of the modern workplace is significant, but its application in the context of physical workplace design and employee recovery (alongside the consideration of SD and SDT) is an emerging area of research.
3. The EGDAR Theoretical Framework
The EGDAR framework is built upon three pillars, each addressing a different dimension of employee wellbeing. It synthesises the core psychological needs of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) with the health-promoting principles of Salutogenic Design (SD) and the wellbeing-enhancing tools of Positive Technology (PT). The framework organises these concepts into three interconnected sectors that guide the design of workplace interventions: One-Self, One-Skills, and One-with-Others.
Figure 1: The EGDAR framework
3.1. One-Self (Autonomy + Manageability + Hedonic Devices)
The One-Self sector addresses an individual's sense of autonomy and personal growth, as defined by SDT. It links this need with Salutogenic Design’s principle of Manageability, which emphasises an individual's capacity to cope with challenges and manage their environment (Golembiewski 2017). By incorporating PT’s hedonic devices, which are designed to create pleasurable and engaging experiences, interventions in this sector focus on self-care, mindfulness, and work recovery. This approach empowers employees to take control of their wellbeing, fostering a sense of volition and independence.
3.2. One-Skills (Competence + Comprehensibility + Eudaimonic Happiness)
The One-Skills sector focuses on an employee’s need for competence—the desire to feel effective and capable in their tasks (SDT). This is linked to Salutogenic Design’s principle of Comprehensibility, which involves creating environments that are easy to understand and navigate. By leveraging PT’s concept of eudaimonic happiness—which comes from engaging in activities that align with one's skills—this sector promotes learning, digital literacy, and sensemaking. Interventions designed within this sector help employees master their environment and tasks, reinforcing their confidence and sense of accomplishment.
3.3. One-with-Others (Relatedness + Meaningfulness + Social Technologies)
The One-with-Others sector addresses the fundamental human need for relatedness—the feeling of belonging, connection, and security with others (SDT). This is aligned with Salutogenic Design’s principle of Meaningfulness, which creates environments that provide a sense of purpose and social connection (REF). By employing PT’s social technologies, interventions in this sector facilitate interpersonal connections, teamwork, and emotional intelligence. This can create a collaborative culture and strengthen social bonds, which are vital for a supportive and resilient workplace.
Table 1 shows a summary of how the EGDAR sector relates to the psychological needs of SDT, in relation to both SD and PT.
Table 1: EGDAR sectors in relation to Salutogenic Design and Positive Technology.
EGDAR Sector Name
SDT Psychological Need
In relation to:
Salutogenic Design (SD) Principle
Positive Technology (PT) Concept
One-Self
Autonomy
Wellbeing
Manageability
Hedonic Devices
One-Skills
Competence
Technology
Comprehensibility, Sense-making
Eudaimonic Happiness
One-with-Others
Relatedness
Environment
Empathy, Meaningfulness
Social Technologies
4. Methodology
The study employed an in-depth empirical approach to develop and evaluate the EGDAR framework, focusing on how augmented graphic interventions can enhance workplace wellbeing. The research was guided by an inductive methodology, which allowed for the emergence of themes and insights directly from the data. The study adopted an experimental case study approach, involving 14 healthcare employees in a simulated healthcare environment. A third space was found to simulate the healthcare context in a museum due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions (Chua, Gwilt & Davis 2023), as accessing healthcare organisations directly remained challenging.
The research explored potential future work recovery scenarios collaboratively with participants. This process was structured in three design stages:
Stage 1 (Discovery): This phase combined focus groups and semi-structured interviews to gather insights into participants' current workplace wellbeing and recovery practices. A thematic-inductive analysis was used to systematically identify key challenges and opportunities, which directly informed the subsequent design phase.
Stage 2 (Prototyping): Based on the insights from the discovery phase, three augmented graphic prototypes were developed. This process was guided by the Gioia methodology to ensure that the prototypes were conceptually grounded in the lived experiences and expressed needs of the participants. The Gioia methodology presents a systematic approach to the development of a new, emergent concept and brings qualitative rigour in conducting and presenting inductive research (Gioia, Corley & Hamilton 2013). It also proves helpful to readers to see the rigour of the concept development, and how it leads to the findings in a logical and structured way (Gioia, Corley & Hamilton 2013).
Stage 3 (Testing): Participants evaluated the prototypes in the museum (simulated healthcare context) using a Think-Aloud protocol to capture their real-time reactions and thought processes. This was followed by a final round of in-depth focus groups and semi-structured interviews to comprehensively assess their experiences and the potential of the interventions to support work recovery.
By combining a structured, collaborative process with a rigorous analytical methodology, the three interventions were developed and tested, both theoretically informed and grounded in end-user needs. The next section will present its findings, highlighting the practical application and value of the EGDAR framework.
5. Findings: Applying the EGDAR Framework: A Case Study in Healthcare
To demonstrate the practical application of the EGDAR framework, an exploratory case study was conducted using an inductive methodology and informed by a Constructivist-Grounded Theory (CGT) approach. In CGT, participants shape meaning in cooperation with the researcher. It is a qualitative research approach that focuses on co-creating theory with participants. CGT acknowledges that knowledge emerges from social interaction and individual experiences, instead of seeking objective truths (Mills, Bonner & Francis 2001). The study investigated the potential of augmented Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) to enhance workplace wellbeing in a simulated healthcare context. Three prototype interventions were developed and analysed through the EGDAR lens to understand how they addressed employees' psychological needs for work recovery.
5.1. Prototype A: Wall Canvas, 2D Projection (Context: Office Lobby)
The wall canvas prototype, a motion-graphic projection in a communal office lobby, demonstrates a clear alignment with the EGDAR framework's sectors, showing how a single intervention can address multiple psychological needs.
Figure 2: Mapping of Prototype A indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
Referring to Figure 2, the findings revealed alignment within the One-Self Sector. The prototype functions as a PT hedonic device, providing a visual and aesthetic prompt for employees. Creating a tranquil and engaging ambience encourages moments of self-care and mindfulness. This visual intervention supports the autonomy aspect of SDT by giving employees a voluntary, non-intrusive way to detach and refresh, thus helping them manage their personal wellbeing.
It [Prototype A] is just a pleasant thing to look at while I am waiting for the lift. A beautiful design…and I can recognize it. Definitely being able to follow it as well.
– Participant 15, Think-aloud protocol
So you got this beautiful yellow sun, and obviously the birds. The cartoony nature of it is cute and sort of happy. So, I think this could be their welcome, invite you into work..the sun that is a happy element.
– Participant 14, Think-aloud protocol
The findings strongly correlate with this sector, One-with-Others, by showing how the prototype creates a sense of relatedness among colleagues. The engaging motion graphics, combined with intentional interior design, create a welcoming atmosphere—a key principle of Salutogenic Design. This inviting ambience encourages incidental interactions, turning a passive space into a communal area. Participants recognised that these shared visual experiences could provide a sense of belonging and social connection, reinforcing the importance of the physical environment in building a supportive workplace community.
I think the wall canvas in a lobby might be a potential bit of a conversation piece. You probably connect with other colleagues that you do not normally connect with...Okay. Yeah. Probably a little bit, it might increase my feeling of connectedness.
– Participant 9, Testing Focus Group
In essence, Prototype A illustrates how a well-designed environmental graphic can act as a dual-purpose tool. It serves as a personal, hedonic device for individual recovery while simultaneously creating a shared, meaningful space that strengthens social bonds and community.
5.2. Prototype B: Jug & Cup, 3D Object (Context: Workplace Kitchen)
The jug and cup prototype, which uses AR on everyday objects in the workplace kitchen, demonstrates how a single intervention can influence both individual and collective wellbeing. This prototype's design directly aligns with the EGDAR framework by connecting the One-Self and One-with-Others sectors (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Mapping of Prototype B indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
Within the One-Self Sector, findings revealed that as a PT hedonic device, the prototype provides a subtle, engaging prompt for self-care. The use of familiar objects allows the intervention to be non-intrusive, encouraging employees to voluntarily take a moment for mindfulness and reflection. This creates autonomy and a sense of personal volition, allowing individuals to initiate their own actions for wellbeing. This effect is further supported by SD's Manageability principle, as employees feel empowered to control their own mental state within their environment.
The jug and cup experience, I thought the message was the clearest, and it was the easiest to understand quickly.
– Participant 4, Testing Focus Group
It [Prototype B] would remind me to take a moment to drink water which I think is quite important.
– Participant 16. Think-aloud protocol
I feel that the jug and cup in the kitchen is the most effective at influencing my sense of self-care management because you're in the place to use it and you're directing the user directly to that item where there's water. So I think that's quite effective.
– Participant 7, Testing Focus Group
Another alignment is within the One-with-Others Sector. The prototype's impact extends beyond the individual, cultivating a shared culture of self-care. By regularly reminding employees to prioritise their wellbeing, the intervention facilitates collective self-regulation and team reflexivity, a concept supported by research from Auzoult et al. (2021). This shared experience leads to improved communication, trust, and empathy within the team. The collective focus on health and wellbeing strengthens the sense of belonging and community, directly addressing the One-with-Others sector. This reinforces the Meaningfulness of work and the team's shared goals, while the empathy and understanding fostered among colleagues enhance the Relatedness aspect of SDT.
So, I knew, for example in the kitchen, being directed to drink more water…giving me more control over my work environment, it feels like someone else guiding and influencing your decision-making. So as if you had a manager or a colleague come over and say you have been sitting down too long, get up and go and get a drink. So, I think that the influence was definitely palpable which was a tangible feeling in a different way.
– Participant 6, Testing Semi-structured Interview
Referring to Figure 3, Prototype B shows how an intervention designed for individual self-care can scale to a team-level impact. By empowering employees to help themselves (One-Self), it creates a foundation for a collaborative culture that strengthens social bonds and mutual support (One-with-Others).
5.3. Prototype C: Icon Stickers, Mobile-Based AR (Context: Workstation)
The final prototype, which employed minimalist AR icons on a mobile device, demonstrates a nuanced relationship with all three sectors of the EGDAR framework. It primarily supports individual wellbeing while simultaneously laying the groundwork for improved team dynamics and professional development.
Referring to Figure 4, the prototype's design directly aligns with the One-Self sector. Its use of abstract and minimalist visual styles is intentional, serving as an ideal interior design choice to support cognitive recovery. These graphical symbols function as a PT hedonic device, providing a non-intrusive and aesthetically pleasing prompt for self-care. This design empowers employees with a sense of autonomy and personal choice over their recovery moments, fulfilling the Salutogenic Manageability principle by giving them tools to proactively manage their mental state.
I think this [Prototype C] is a great approach, again, going back to that personalisation.
– Participant 7, Think-aloud protocol
It [Prototpye C] also potentially gives you more opportunity to play with the graphics and switch it up more frequently.
– Participant 14, Think-aloud protocol
The findings were also revealed to be aligned within the One-Skills sector. The mobile-based AR component of Prototype C is essential for developing competence, a core need in SDT. By requiring employees to use digital skills to interact with the AR content, the prototype enhances their technological fluency and helps them with the sensemaking of information. This interaction, which links the digital and physical environments, reinforces the Salutogenic Comprehensibility principle by making the work environment more intelligible and engaging.
The prototype also has a strong connection to the One-with-Others sector. As employees use the EGD-AR tool for personal development and self-regulation, they are also building a foundation for relatedness.
In regard to the stretching icon in just a scenario, it could encourage you to connect with the person that you are sitting next with and say, “Hey, I’ve just realised I’ve had a look at the icons, I have not really gotten up and stretch, do you want to just do some simple stretches together?” And then that connects it.
– Participant 13, Testing Focus Group
This shared experience and competency with the technology can become a topic of conversation, building working relationships and a sense of belonging. The prototype serves as a valuable work recovery tool that, when shared and discussed, can improve communication and strengthen team bonds.
Figure 4: Mapping of Prototype C indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
The analysis of the three prototypes demonstrates the EGDAR framework's effectiveness as a tool for designing and evaluating workplace wellbeing interventions. By using SDT as a guiding principle, the framework provided a comprehensive lens to understand how environmental and AR interventions could impact the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Each prototype, from the communal wall projection to the individual mobile-based AR, successfully addressed one or more of these core needs. The AR component, in particular, proved vital for ensuring digital content remained relevant and adaptable to the evolving nature of work. It allowed for the development of interventions that not only addressed immediate work recovery needs but also enhanced employees' skills and a sense of connection. This mapping process validated the EGDAR framework's ability to guide the creation of supportive work environments that proactively enhance employee motivation and wellbeing.
6. Discussion
This study's findings offer a nuanced understanding of how to enhance healthcare workplace wellbeing by applying the EGDAR framework. The findings provided insights that a simple, visual and non-prescriptive approach to workplace design, when informed by the EGDAR framework, can effectively address the core psychological needs of employees.
6.1 Salutogenic Design Emphasising Visual Affect
This study found that by combining Salutogenic Design and SDT, visuals and design elements—such as colours, shapes, and graphical symbols—are powerful tools for enhancing wellbeing. The findings showed that thoughtful design can align with SDT's Autonomy by empowering employees with a sense of control and confident navigation, while also fulfilling Salutogenic Comprehensibility by making the environment intuitive and meaningful. The preference for abstract visuals over extensive text is particularly insightful, as it directly supports the need for autonomy and personal interpretation (e.g. triggering thoughts for self-care at work), allowing for a more profound connection to the environment.
6.2 Use of Limited Graphic Text to Promote Wellbeing
The findings also highlight a critical tension: while permanent, text-heavy displays are perceived as overly prescriptive and undesirable, AR offers a dynamic solution. The AR-based interventions align with Salutogenic Manageability, giving employees control over what, when, and how they engage with wellbeing content. This approach not only respects individual autonomy but also introduces a flexible, on-demand method for emotional engagement and reflection. Prior research, such as that by Danilov and Benuzh (2020), has shown that colours and design can improve wayfinding and a sense of connection. Our findings build upon this by showing that these elements, when framed within the EGDAR framework, can also serve as PT hedonic devices that promote individual self-care and work recovery. While the role of visual aesthetics in patient care is well-documented (Abdelaal & Soebarto 2019), this study extends that concept to the wellbeing of healthcare workers themselves, demonstrating that a health-promoting environment can be for the caregiver as much as the patient. The use of AR, in particular, offers a novel approach that contrasts with traditional static environmental graphics, addressing the limitations of "display fatigue" and making messages more relevant and engaging over time.
6.3 Limitations and Future Research
This study was limited to a simulated healthcare environment, with a small sample size of 14 participants. While the inductive methodology allowed for rich, in-depth insights, the findings may not be generalisable to larger healthcare organisations or different professional contexts.
Future research should focus on implementing these prototypes in a live, long-term setting to assess their sustained impact. It would be valuable to explore how the novelty of AR and EGD interventions changes over time and how their impact on social connections might diminish or evolve with familiarity. In addition, a comparative study between text-heavy and visually-oriented interventions could provide quantitative data on their respective effects on employee wellbeing metrics, further solidifying the practical implications of the EGDAR framework.
7. Conclusion: A Model for Future Workplace Wellbeing
The findings from this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the EGDAR framework in guiding the design of workplace interventions that holistically support employee wellbeing. The framework, which integrates SDT, SD, and PT, provides a robust theoretical foundation for creating communication platforms that promote work recovery and engagement. Further, the prototypes showed how augmented graphics can address employees' core psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness by designing for manageability, comprehensibility, and meaningfulness through hedonic, eudaimonic, and social technologies.
This study makes several key contributions:
- A novel, interdisciplinary framework: The EGDAR framework is a unique tool that synthesises established theories to address the complex, intersectional challenges of workplace wellbeing.
- A practical model for design: The case study provides a tangible example of how designers and researchers can use the framework to develop and evaluate innovative interventions.
- A call for collaborative design: The research highlights the importance of "working with" stakeholders, including healthcare professionals, to co-create solutions that are both effective and meaningful.
To conclude, the EGDAR framework offers a fresh perspective for human resources, policymakers, leaders and other interested professionals in healthcare and other sectors. It provides a structured approach to leveraging design and technology. Moving beyond merely mitigating stress, the EGDAR framework proactively serves as a guideline that creates health-promoting environments that prioritise employee wellbeing. It also serves as a call to action for organisations to enhance autonomy, competence, and relatedness through supportive and health-focused environments.
Abstract
The study examines the potential of combining Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) and Augmented Reality (AR) to address the psychological needs of healthcare professionals in hybrid physical and digital environments. Prior research has primarily examined the effects of Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) and Augmented Reality (AR) on patient experiences, with limited attention to their potential impact on healthcare employees. Furthermore, the combination of EGD and AR as a communication platform remains underdeveloped.
This study involved 14 healthcare administrative employees in the development of three prototypes within a simulated healthcare environment. The research adopted an experimental case study approach, utilising an adapted double-diamond process that emphasised collaboration with participants to explore potential future work recovery scenarios. The first phase, Stage 1: Discovery, combined focus groups and semi-structured interviews, employing a thematic-inductive analysis to generate insights. These findings informed the prototype design in Stage 2: Prototyping, guided by the Gioia methodology. Finally, in Stage 3: Testing, participants evaluated the prototypes using a Think-Aloud protocol, followed by in-depth focus groups and semi-structured interviews to assess their experiences.
Findings revealed that augmented graphics can help alleviate workplace stress, which includes capturing attention and encouraging reflection on employee wellbeing. Using the EGDAR framework—a theoretical model integrating Self-Determination Theory's (SDT) three psychological needs (Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness) with Salutogenic Design and Positive Technology—the research study evaluates whether such settings can enhance wellbeing and work recovery. The framework suggests that these three interventions are positioned as tools for self-care, promoting engagement with content and facilitating social connections.
The study concludes that EGD-AR serves as a vital component of broader work recovery strategies, offering potential to enhance employee engagement, self-care, and social cohesion in the workplace.
1. Introduction
The context for this study has shifted dramatically toward prioritising healthcare workers' wellbeing, emphasising the need for supportive policies, ergonomic designs, and leadership strategies to reduce burnout and enhance productivity (Bienkowska et al. 2022; Poon et al. 2022; Roberts et al. 2021). The growing strain on healthcare workers due to increased job demands, emotional exhaustion, and burnout—particularly during the pandemic—underscores the need for improved workplace design and mental health support. These issues highlight the interconnected challenges affecting not only healthcare workers but also patient outcomes (Australian Government 2019; Hall et al. 2016; National Mental Health Commission 2020).
Clear communication and well-designed physical environments are now identified as vital for ensuring employee satisfaction and high-quality patient care (Ashkanasy et al. 2014; Ayoko & Ashkanasy 2020; Prakash 2010). The physical work environment plays a crucial role, with factors like ergonomic conditions, air quality, and access to nature contributing significantly to health and satisfaction (Abouelela 2022; Dreyer et al. 2018; Hedge 2016; Kirillova et al. 2020).
The COVID-19 pandemic has further heightened the importance of workplace design, as healthcare workers face increased stress, burnout, and resignations due to high demands and inadequate resources (Dobson et al. 2021; Letourmeau 2021; Smallwood et al. 2021). Mandatory overtime and insufficient staffing exacerbate these challenges, impacting both worker wellbeing and the quality of patient care (Forooraghi et al. 2020; Hall et al. 2016). This shift in focus has made it clear that a positive workplace culture must be supported by a physical environment and policies that actively enhance workers' mental and psychological wellbeing, enabling them to deliver quality care and improve patient outcomes (Digest 2017; Foster 2020; Hahtela et al. 2017; Sergeant 2012; Wood 2018).
To address this need, this paper introduces the EGDAR theoretical framework, a novel interdisciplinary tool for designing and evaluating workplace wellbeing interventions. The EGDAR framework integrates three key theoretical concepts: Self-Determination Theory (SDT), Salutogenic Design (SD), and Positive Technology (PT). By synthesising these theories, the framework provides a comprehensive foundation for creating supportive environments that meet employees' fundamental psychological needs, thereby fostering sustained motivation and overall wellbeing.
This manuscript first details the theoretical underpinnings of the research through a literature review. It then introduces the EGDAR framework, explaining how its components are integrated to guide design practice. Finally, it presents an exploratory case study, which applies the framework to develop and analyse augmented graphic interventions in a healthcare setting, serving as a practical demonstration of its utility.
2. Literature Review
This literature review provides the theoretical foundation for the EGDAR framework by exploring three key fields that, when synthesised, inform a holistic approach to workplace wellbeing. First, we examine Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which offers a psychosocial lens by identifying the core psychological needs that drive human motivation and vitality. Next, we delve into Salutogenic Design, a conceptual approach that focuses on creating health-promoting physical environments rather than merely preventing illness. Finally, we review the principles of Positive Technology, which explores the deliberate use of technology to enhance human flourishing and positive experiences. By synthesising these complementary bodies of knowledge, this review establishes the conceptual groundwork for our proposed framework, demonstrating how a design-led approach can address the multifaceted nature of employee wellbeing in a comprehensive and integrated manner.
2.1. Self-Determination Theory (SDT)
Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is a macro-theory of human motivation and personality development that focuses on the degree to which an individual’s behaviour is self-motivated and self-determined. SDT posits that humans have three innate and universal psychological needs that, when satisfied, are essential for psychological growth and wellbeing (Deci & Ryan 2015):
Autonomy: The need to feel a sense of choice and control over one’s actions, rather than feeling pressured or coerced. In the workplace, this translates to employees feeling they can initiate actions independently and have influence over their work (Deci & Ryan 1987).
Competence: The need to feel capable and effective in one’s tasks and interactions (Van den Broeck et al. 2010). This involves a sense of mastery and confidence in one’s abilities, which is vital for sustained engagement and productivity (Gaggioli et al. 2017).
Relatedness: The need to feel a sense of belonging, connection and acceptance by others. A supportive social environment at work, characterised by trust and empathy, is vital for satisfying this need (Ryan & Deci 2017).
Previous research acknowledges the influence of both heritable (Barry & Jenkins 2007; Lykken & Tellegen 1996) and environmental factors on wellbeing (Diener, Lucas & Scollon 2006; Haybron 2013; MacCulloch 2003). This study specifically explores how environmental factors, such as visual graphics and augmented reality technologies, can be designed to support these three basic psychological needs and, in turn, enhance workplace wellbeing.
2.2. Salutogenic Design (SD)
Salutogenesis, a concept developed by Aaron Antonovsky, focuses on the factors that support human health and wellbeing, rather than on the causes of disease (Roskams & Haynes 2020). Salutogenic Design (SD) applies these principles to the built environment, creating spaces that actively promote health. The core of salutogenic architecture is distilled into three principles:
Manageability: The capacity to manage daily activities and meet personal needs (Golembiewski 2017). Design strategies that support manageability address functional needs while promoting autonomous motivation and a sense of control over one's environment.
Comprehensibility: The ability to understand one’s environment, encompassing both physical and psychosocial aspects. SD enhances comprehensibility by creating environments that are intuitive and provide a sense of security, reducing anxiety and improving orientation (Golembiewski 2017).
Meaningfulness: The belief that one has the resources to cope with challenges and that the effort is worthwhile. Meaningful environments can strengthen an individual's resolve and foster a sense of purpose, often through biophilic elements or design that connects people to a larger community (Abdelaal & Soebarto 2019; Mazuch 2017).
While widely applied in hospital settings to enhance patient recovery, the potential of SD in consideration with SDT to enhance the wellbeing of healthcare workers themselves remains an underexplored area.
2.3. Positive Technology (PT)
Positive Technology (PT) is a field of study that integrates wellbeing objectives with technology design to enhance personal experiences and promote positive emotions within the Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) framework (Gaggioli et al. 2017). Aligned with positive psychology, PT aims to facilitate flourishing and optimal functioning. Key concepts in PT include:
Hedonic Devices: These technologies create engaging digital interactions that support wellbeing through pleasure and enjoyment, such as mindfulness apps or aesthetically pleasing interfaces (Peters, Calvo & Ryan 2018).
Eudaimonic Happiness: This concept emphasises satisfaction derived from tasks that align with an individual’s competencies and contribute to personal growth (Gaggioli et al. 2017). In technology, this is often seen in rehabilitation games or apps that tailor challenges to a user’s abilities (Sullivan 2019).
Social Technologies: These technologies are designed to enhance interpersonal connections and community awareness, such as collaborative platforms or virtual reality environments that foster a sense of belonging (Peters et al. 2018).
The potential of PT to address the psychological and social challenges of the modern workplace is significant, but its application in the context of physical workplace design and employee recovery (alongside the consideration of SD and SDT) is an emerging area of research.
3. The EGDAR Theoretical Framework
The EGDAR framework is built upon three pillars, each addressing a different dimension of employee wellbeing. It synthesises the core psychological needs of Self-Determination Theory (SDT) with the health-promoting principles of Salutogenic Design (SD) and the wellbeing-enhancing tools of Positive Technology (PT). The framework organises these concepts into three interconnected sectors that guide the design of workplace interventions: One-Self, One-Skills, and One-with-Others.
Figure 1: The EGDAR framework
3.1. One-Self (Autonomy + Manageability + Hedonic Devices)
The One-Self sector addresses an individual's sense of autonomy and personal growth, as defined by SDT. It links this need with Salutogenic Design’s principle of Manageability, which emphasises an individual's capacity to cope with challenges and manage their environment (Golembiewski 2017). By incorporating PT’s hedonic devices, which are designed to create pleasurable and engaging experiences, interventions in this sector focus on self-care, mindfulness, and work recovery. This approach empowers employees to take control of their wellbeing, fostering a sense of volition and independence.
3.2. One-Skills (Competence + Comprehensibility + Eudaimonic Happiness)
The One-Skills sector focuses on an employee’s need for competence—the desire to feel effective and capable in their tasks (SDT). This is linked to Salutogenic Design’s principle of Comprehensibility, which involves creating environments that are easy to understand and navigate. By leveraging PT’s concept of eudaimonic happiness—which comes from engaging in activities that align with one's skills—this sector promotes learning, digital literacy, and sensemaking. Interventions designed within this sector help employees master their environment and tasks, reinforcing their confidence and sense of accomplishment.
3.3. One-with-Others (Relatedness + Meaningfulness + Social Technologies)
The One-with-Others sector addresses the fundamental human need for relatedness—the feeling of belonging, connection, and security with others (SDT). This is aligned with Salutogenic Design’s principle of Meaningfulness, which creates environments that provide a sense of purpose and social connection (REF). By employing PT’s social technologies, interventions in this sector facilitate interpersonal connections, teamwork, and emotional intelligence. This can create a collaborative culture and strengthen social bonds, which are vital for a supportive and resilient workplace.
Table 1 shows a summary of how the EGDAR sector relates to the psychological needs of SDT, in relation to both SD and PT.
Table 1: EGDAR sectors in relation to Salutogenic Design and Positive Technology.
EGDAR Sector Name
SDT Psychological Need
In relation to:
Salutogenic Design (SD) Principle
Positive Technology (PT) Concept
One-Self
Autonomy
Wellbeing
Manageability
Hedonic Devices
One-Skills
Competence
Technology
Comprehensibility, Sense-making
Eudaimonic Happiness
One-with-Others
Relatedness
Environment
Empathy, Meaningfulness
Social Technologies
4. Methodology
The study employed an in-depth empirical approach to develop and evaluate the EGDAR framework, focusing on how augmented graphic interventions can enhance workplace wellbeing. The research was guided by an inductive methodology, which allowed for the emergence of themes and insights directly from the data. The study adopted an experimental case study approach, involving 14 healthcare employees in a simulated healthcare environment. A third space was found to simulate the healthcare context in a museum due to the COVID-19 pandemic restrictions (Chua, Gwilt & Davis 2023), as accessing healthcare organisations directly remained challenging.
The research explored potential future work recovery scenarios collaboratively with participants. This process was structured in three design stages:
Stage 1 (Discovery): This phase combined focus groups and semi-structured interviews to gather insights into participants' current workplace wellbeing and recovery practices. A thematic-inductive analysis was used to systematically identify key challenges and opportunities, which directly informed the subsequent design phase.
Stage 2 (Prototyping): Based on the insights from the discovery phase, three augmented graphic prototypes were developed. This process was guided by the Gioia methodology to ensure that the prototypes were conceptually grounded in the lived experiences and expressed needs of the participants. The Gioia methodology presents a systematic approach to the development of a new, emergent concept and brings qualitative rigour in conducting and presenting inductive research (Gioia, Corley & Hamilton 2013). It also proves helpful to readers to see the rigour of the concept development, and how it leads to the findings in a logical and structured way (Gioia, Corley & Hamilton 2013).
Stage 3 (Testing): Participants evaluated the prototypes in the museum (simulated healthcare context) using a Think-Aloud protocol to capture their real-time reactions and thought processes. This was followed by a final round of in-depth focus groups and semi-structured interviews to comprehensively assess their experiences and the potential of the interventions to support work recovery.
By combining a structured, collaborative process with a rigorous analytical methodology, the three interventions were developed and tested, both theoretically informed and grounded in end-user needs. The next section will present its findings, highlighting the practical application and value of the EGDAR framework.
5. Findings: Applying the EGDAR Framework: A Case Study in Healthcare
To demonstrate the practical application of the EGDAR framework, an exploratory case study was conducted using an inductive methodology and informed by a Constructivist-Grounded Theory (CGT) approach. In CGT, participants shape meaning in cooperation with the researcher. It is a qualitative research approach that focuses on co-creating theory with participants. CGT acknowledges that knowledge emerges from social interaction and individual experiences, instead of seeking objective truths (Mills, Bonner & Francis 2001). The study investigated the potential of augmented Environmental Graphic Design (EGD) to enhance workplace wellbeing in a simulated healthcare context. Three prototype interventions were developed and analysed through the EGDAR lens to understand how they addressed employees' psychological needs for work recovery.
5.1. Prototype A: Wall Canvas, 2D Projection (Context: Office Lobby)
The wall canvas prototype, a motion-graphic projection in a communal office lobby, demonstrates a clear alignment with the EGDAR framework's sectors, showing how a single intervention can address multiple psychological needs.
Figure 2: Mapping of Prototype A indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
Referring to Figure 2, the findings revealed alignment within the One-Self Sector. The prototype functions as a PT hedonic device, providing a visual and aesthetic prompt for employees. Creating a tranquil and engaging ambience encourages moments of self-care and mindfulness. This visual intervention supports the autonomy aspect of SDT by giving employees a voluntary, non-intrusive way to detach and refresh, thus helping them manage their personal wellbeing.
It [Prototype A] is just a pleasant thing to look at while I am waiting for the lift. A beautiful design…and I can recognize it. Definitely being able to follow it as well.
– Participant 15, Think-aloud protocol
So you got this beautiful yellow sun, and obviously the birds. The cartoony nature of it is cute and sort of happy. So, I think this could be their welcome, invite you into work..the sun that is a happy element.
– Participant 14, Think-aloud protocol
The findings strongly correlate with this sector, One-with-Others, by showing how the prototype creates a sense of relatedness among colleagues. The engaging motion graphics, combined with intentional interior design, create a welcoming atmosphere—a key principle of Salutogenic Design. This inviting ambience encourages incidental interactions, turning a passive space into a communal area. Participants recognised that these shared visual experiences could provide a sense of belonging and social connection, reinforcing the importance of the physical environment in building a supportive workplace community.
I think the wall canvas in a lobby might be a potential bit of a conversation piece. You probably connect with other colleagues that you do not normally connect with...Okay. Yeah. Probably a little bit, it might increase my feeling of connectedness.
– Participant 9, Testing Focus Group
In essence, Prototype A illustrates how a well-designed environmental graphic can act as a dual-purpose tool. It serves as a personal, hedonic device for individual recovery while simultaneously creating a shared, meaningful space that strengthens social bonds and community.
5.2. Prototype B: Jug & Cup, 3D Object (Context: Workplace Kitchen)
The jug and cup prototype, which uses AR on everyday objects in the workplace kitchen, demonstrates how a single intervention can influence both individual and collective wellbeing. This prototype's design directly aligns with the EGDAR framework by connecting the One-Self and One-with-Others sectors (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Mapping of Prototype B indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
Within the One-Self Sector, findings revealed that as a PT hedonic device, the prototype provides a subtle, engaging prompt for self-care. The use of familiar objects allows the intervention to be non-intrusive, encouraging employees to voluntarily take a moment for mindfulness and reflection. This creates autonomy and a sense of personal volition, allowing individuals to initiate their own actions for wellbeing. This effect is further supported by SD's Manageability principle, as employees feel empowered to control their own mental state within their environment.
The jug and cup experience, I thought the message was the clearest, and it was the easiest to understand quickly.
– Participant 4, Testing Focus Group
It [Prototype B] would remind me to take a moment to drink water which I think is quite important.
– Participant 16. Think-aloud protocol
I feel that the jug and cup in the kitchen is the most effective at influencing my sense of self-care management because you're in the place to use it and you're directing the user directly to that item where there's water. So I think that's quite effective.
– Participant 7, Testing Focus Group
Another alignment is within the One-with-Others Sector. The prototype's impact extends beyond the individual, cultivating a shared culture of self-care. By regularly reminding employees to prioritise their wellbeing, the intervention facilitates collective self-regulation and team reflexivity, a concept supported by research from Auzoult et al. (2021). This shared experience leads to improved communication, trust, and empathy within the team. The collective focus on health and wellbeing strengthens the sense of belonging and community, directly addressing the One-with-Others sector. This reinforces the Meaningfulness of work and the team's shared goals, while the empathy and understanding fostered among colleagues enhance the Relatedness aspect of SDT.
So, I knew, for example in the kitchen, being directed to drink more water…giving me more control over my work environment, it feels like someone else guiding and influencing your decision-making. So as if you had a manager or a colleague come over and say you have been sitting down too long, get up and go and get a drink. So, I think that the influence was definitely palpable which was a tangible feeling in a different way.
– Participant 6, Testing Semi-structured Interview
Referring to Figure 3, Prototype B shows how an intervention designed for individual self-care can scale to a team-level impact. By empowering employees to help themselves (One-Self), it creates a foundation for a collaborative culture that strengthens social bonds and mutual support (One-with-Others).
5.3. Prototype C: Icon Stickers, Mobile-Based AR (Context: Workstation)
The final prototype, which employed minimalist AR icons on a mobile device, demonstrates a nuanced relationship with all three sectors of the EGDAR framework. It primarily supports individual wellbeing while simultaneously laying the groundwork for improved team dynamics and professional development.
Referring to Figure 4, the prototype's design directly aligns with the One-Self sector. Its use of abstract and minimalist visual styles is intentional, serving as an ideal interior design choice to support cognitive recovery. These graphical symbols function as a PT hedonic device, providing a non-intrusive and aesthetically pleasing prompt for self-care. This design empowers employees with a sense of autonomy and personal choice over their recovery moments, fulfilling the Salutogenic Manageability principle by giving them tools to proactively manage their mental state.
I think this [Prototype C] is a great approach, again, going back to that personalisation.
– Participant 7, Think-aloud protocol
It [Prototpye C] also potentially gives you more opportunity to play with the graphics and switch it up more frequently.
– Participant 14, Think-aloud protocol
The findings were also revealed to be aligned within the One-Skills sector. The mobile-based AR component of Prototype C is essential for developing competence, a core need in SDT. By requiring employees to use digital skills to interact with the AR content, the prototype enhances their technological fluency and helps them with the sensemaking of information. This interaction, which links the digital and physical environments, reinforces the Salutogenic Comprehensibility principle by making the work environment more intelligible and engaging.
The prototype also has a strong connection to the One-with-Others sector. As employees use the EGD-AR tool for personal development and self-regulation, they are also building a foundation for relatedness.
In regard to the stretching icon in just a scenario, it could encourage you to connect with the person that you are sitting next with and say, “Hey, I’ve just realised I’ve had a look at the icons, I have not really gotten up and stretch, do you want to just do some simple stretches together?” And then that connects it.
– Participant 13, Testing Focus Group
This shared experience and competency with the technology can become a topic of conversation, building working relationships and a sense of belonging. The prototype serves as a valuable work recovery tool that, when shared and discussed, can improve communication and strengthen team bonds.
Figure 4: Mapping of Prototype C indicating the relationship among each sector in the EGDAR framework.
The analysis of the three prototypes demonstrates the EGDAR framework's effectiveness as a tool for designing and evaluating workplace wellbeing interventions. By using SDT as a guiding principle, the framework provided a comprehensive lens to understand how environmental and AR interventions could impact the psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness.
Each prototype, from the communal wall projection to the individual mobile-based AR, successfully addressed one or more of these core needs. The AR component, in particular, proved vital for ensuring digital content remained relevant and adaptable to the evolving nature of work. It allowed for the development of interventions that not only addressed immediate work recovery needs but also enhanced employees' skills and a sense of connection. This mapping process validated the EGDAR framework's ability to guide the creation of supportive work environments that proactively enhance employee motivation and wellbeing.
6. Discussion
This study's findings offer a nuanced understanding of how to enhance healthcare workplace wellbeing by applying the EGDAR framework. The findings provided insights that a simple, visual and non-prescriptive approach to workplace design, when informed by the EGDAR framework, can effectively address the core psychological needs of employees.
6.1 Salutogenic Design Emphasising Visual Affect
This study found that by combining Salutogenic Design and SDT, visuals and design elements—such as colours, shapes, and graphical symbols—are powerful tools for enhancing wellbeing. The findings showed that thoughtful design can align with SDT's Autonomy by empowering employees with a sense of control and confident navigation, while also fulfilling Salutogenic Comprehensibility by making the environment intuitive and meaningful. The preference for abstract visuals over extensive text is particularly insightful, as it directly supports the need for autonomy and personal interpretation (e.g. triggering thoughts for self-care at work), allowing for a more profound connection to the environment.
6.2 Use of Limited Graphic Text to Promote Wellbeing
The findings also highlight a critical tension: while permanent, text-heavy displays are perceived as overly prescriptive and undesirable, AR offers a dynamic solution. The AR-based interventions align with Salutogenic Manageability, giving employees control over what, when, and how they engage with wellbeing content. This approach not only respects individual autonomy but also introduces a flexible, on-demand method for emotional engagement and reflection. Prior research, such as that by Danilov and Benuzh (2020), has shown that colours and design can improve wayfinding and a sense of connection. Our findings build upon this by showing that these elements, when framed within the EGDAR framework, can also serve as PT hedonic devices that promote individual self-care and work recovery. While the role of visual aesthetics in patient care is well-documented (Abdelaal & Soebarto 2019), this study extends that concept to the wellbeing of healthcare workers themselves, demonstrating that a health-promoting environment can be for the caregiver as much as the patient. The use of AR, in particular, offers a novel approach that contrasts with traditional static environmental graphics, addressing the limitations of "display fatigue" and making messages more relevant and engaging over time.
6.3 Limitations and Future Research
This study was limited to a simulated healthcare environment, with a small sample size of 14 participants. While the inductive methodology allowed for rich, in-depth insights, the findings may not be generalisable to larger healthcare organisations or different professional contexts.
Future research should focus on implementing these prototypes in a live, long-term setting to assess their sustained impact. It would be valuable to explore how the novelty of AR and EGD interventions changes over time and how their impact on social connections might diminish or evolve with familiarity. In addition, a comparative study between text-heavy and visually-oriented interventions could provide quantitative data on their respective effects on employee wellbeing metrics, further solidifying the practical implications of the EGDAR framework.
7. Conclusion: A Model for Future Workplace Wellbeing
The findings from this study demonstrate the effectiveness of the EGDAR framework in guiding the design of workplace interventions that holistically support employee wellbeing. The framework, which integrates SDT, SD, and PT, provides a robust theoretical foundation for creating communication platforms that promote work recovery and engagement. Further, the prototypes showed how augmented graphics can address employees' core psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness by designing for manageability, comprehensibility, and meaningfulness through hedonic, eudaimonic, and social technologies.
This study makes several key contributions:
- A novel, interdisciplinary framework: The EGDAR framework is a unique tool that synthesises established theories to address the complex, intersectional challenges of workplace wellbeing.
- A practical model for design: The case study provides a tangible example of how designers and researchers can use the framework to develop and evaluate innovative interventions.
- A call for collaborative design: The research highlights the importance of "working with" stakeholders, including healthcare professionals, to co-create solutions that are both effective and meaningful.
To conclude, the EGDAR framework offers a fresh perspective for human resources, policymakers, leaders and other interested professionals in healthcare and other sectors. It provides a structured approach to leveraging design and technology. Moving beyond merely mitigating stress, the EGDAR framework proactively serves as a guideline that creates health-promoting environments that prioritise employee wellbeing. It also serves as a call to action for organisations to enhance autonomy, competence, and relatedness through supportive and health-focused environments.