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1. Introduction
Cities communicate through type. From towering billboards to humble storefront signage, urban typography serves as a visual language which is a collective script shaped by those who move through and inhabit the city. In immigrant neighborhoods, this language becomes layered and hybrid, shaped by movement, memory, and negotiation. These typographic expressions not only reflect the identities of their makers but also mediate the relationships between cultural heritage and contemporary urban life [1]. Koreatown in Los Angeles presents a particularly rich case of this phenomenon, where Hangul, Roman alphabets, and bilingual signage co-exist in dense, commercially driven streetscapes [2].
While Koreatown is often studied for its cultural, culinary, or demographic significance, less attention has been paid to its typographic landscape. Yet signage in Koreatown is far more than functional; it is an expressive cultural system shaped by diasporic identity and spatial adaptation. From brush-style Hangul in traditional stores to minimalist English in trendy cafes, these signs embody generational shifts, economic positioning, and community signaling [3].
This research investigates the visual language of Koreatown through field documentation and typographic analysis, focusing on how signage encodes cultural identity, adapts to urban infrastructure, and reflects patterns of migration and settlement. Drawing on methods from design research and visual anthropology, the study seeks to understand how type operates as both aesthetic form and social indicators. Particular attention is given to how recurring color schemes, typographic styles, and bilingual formats participate in a wider semiotic system that mediates belonging.
This research is grounded in both personal proximity and academic inquiry. As a Korean designer who previously relocated to Los Angeles for graduate study, I encountered Koreatown not only as a cultural landmark but as a compelling visual field. Its layered signage, multilingual expressions, and vibrant density offered a vivid reflection of diasporic identity in motion. Living and studying in Los Angeles allowed for sustained engagement with this environment that an experience that informed the direction and depth of the investigation.
Rather than treating Koreatown as a static ethnic enclave, this paper approaches it as a dynamic typographic ecology, where signs operate not only as commercial markers but also as cultural texts. The following sections build a theoretical framework, contextualize the urban site, describe the methodology of field research, and analyze findings across typographic, spatial, and cultural dimensions.
2. Theoretical Framework
Typography is both communicative and cultural. Ellen Lupton emphasizes that typography, beyond legibility, encodes emotional and social values [4]. In multilingual urban environments, typography becomes a key site of identity formation and negotiation. Benedict Anderson's concept of "imagined communities" positions language as central to constructing collective identity [5], while Arjun Appadurai's framework of "ethnoscapes" and "mediascapes" emphasizes the spatial and representational consequences of migration [6].
Urban semiotics also provides a critical lens for understanding signage. Lou introduces the notion of "semiotic re-materialization," wherein shared visual forms take on new meanings depending on cultural and linguistic context [7]. This is particularly salient in immigrant neighborhoods, where generic sign formats may acquire distinct ethnic or cultural connotations. Jiang further argue that signage in immigrant enclaves is both reflective and performative which visually asserting presence while also adapting to urban constraints [8].
This aligns with Homi Bhabha’s concept of the “third space,” wherein hybrid cultural forms emerge through processes of translation and negotiation rather than assimilation. Signage in such contexts becomes a performative interface, producing new meanings at the intersection of the familiar and the foreign. Type, in this sense, does not passively reflect cultural identity; it actively shapes and stages it [9].
Los Angeles’s Koreatown exemplifies this layered typographic ecology. As a dense, multilingual and commercially vibrant district, it presents a landscape where types become both a design decision and a cultural act. The combination of ornamental Hangul and minimalist Roman typefaces, or the use of two languages in one storefront, shows how typography helps diasporic communities express their presence, build a sense of belonging, and imagine new ways of living in the city. These theoretical frameworks collectively inform this study’s reading of Koreatown as a typographic field shaped by cultural memory, commercial intent and the spatial logics of the city, a space where design, language and identity intersect in visible and meaningful ways.
3. Koreatown, LA as a Typographic Space
Located west of Downtown Los Angeles, Koreatown emerged in the 1960s as a site of Korean migration and entrepreneurial activity. Today, it is one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic neighborhoods in the city. Its urban fabric is defined by multi-story strip malls, car-oriented boulevards, and a high turnover of small businesses.
Olympic Boulevard, Western Avenue, and Vermont Avenue function as the neighborhood's primary commercial arteries. These streets are characterized by compact building facades, stacked signage, and a mix of temporary and permanent storefronts. Signage in these zones must contend with long viewing distances, vehicular speeds, and visual competition.
The area's typographic space is not only shaped by geography, but also by community. Hangul signage visually asserts Korean presence; English signage courts broader audiences; and bilingual signage negotiates the space in between. The repetition of certain color schemes and type styles across these signs’ hints at a vernacular design logic rooted in both heritage and adaptation.
4. Methodology
This research employed a qualitative, design-based methodology that combined field photography, typographic coding, and spatial analysis. Between the summer and fall 2022, fieldwork was conducted across three primary corridors: Olympic Boulevard, Western Avenue, and Wilshire Boulevard. Over 200 images were captured, representing a mix of signage types, building typologies, and times of day.
Each image was coded by language use (Korean, English, bilingual), typographic style (serif, sans-serif, script, brush), layout (stacked, side-by-side, integrated), and color scheme. In addition to image analysis, contextual factors such as building height, signage placement, and lighting were documented.
As a Korean researcher who relocated to LA, I brought both cultural familiarity and critical distance to the fieldwork. My background enabled me to identify typographic nuances and cultural signifiers, while also interpreting their spatial implications through a design lens.
5. Results and Analysis
5.1 Typographic Strategies
Signage in Koreatown exhibits a spectrum of linguistic and typographic strategies. Korean-only signs often draw from 1980s–90s Korean commercial typography, characterized by bold strokes, condensed forms, and pragmatic display styles. These visual choices are not only familiar to first-generation immigrants but also reflect the business environment they encountered that shaped by limited design resources, practical constraints, and analog production methods common at the time.
English-only signs, particularly in Korean-operated businesses, often adopt more modern or stylized typefaces compared to older signage. While not always minimalist, these designs are frequently associated with newer establishments aiming to appeal to a broader, often younger, audience.
Bilingual signs integrate Hangul and English either through clear hierarchy or hybrid composition, balancing cultural reference and accessibility.
The strategic placement, scale, and font selection in bilingual signage reflect both cultural positioning and commercial pragmatism. Hangul may be placed below English to signal modern branding, or above to assert cultural priority.
However, these visual patterns are not uniform. Factors such as business age, target clientele, and budget influence typographic choices. While newer establishments often adopt more modern aesthetics, older businesses tend to retain visual conventions from 1990s Korea, such as bold strokes, condensed forms, and vibrant primary colors [10]. This diversity, shaped by both intentional design and ad hoc production methods, contributes to the neighborhood’s layered and vernacular visual character.
5.2 Spatial Adaptation
The typographic landscape of Koreatown reflects a direct adaptation to Los Angeles’ car-centric infrastructure and dense urban form. Signage is designed with visibility and legibility in mind, shaped by the need to be seen from wide roads, fast-moving traffic, and across expansive parking lots [11]. Bold, high contrast typography, often sans serif and set in all capital letters, dominates the streetscape. These stylistic choices are not merely aesthetic but are spatial solutions to ensure communication across physical distance.
Illuminated lettering and vertical stacking are also common adaptive strategies. In multi-tenant buildings, signs are often stacked vertically to accommodate multiple businesses within limited facade space, creating a layered typographic rhythm that mirrors the vertical density of the built environment. This verticality allows for spatial efficiency while contributing to the visual dynamism of the street.
Color choices similarly respond to spatial demands. High visibility combinations such as red, blue, or green text on white backgrounds, and vice versa, are frequently used to enhance legibility. These color palettes not only ensure maximum contrast but also evoke the aesthetic of Korean commercial signage, blending functional visibility with cultural familiarity [12, 13].
Framing and repetition further support spatial clarity. Boxy sign borders and consistent typographic treatments create visual separation and recognition immediately, key qualities in a competitive signage saturated environment. Therefore, the signage in Koreatown exemplifies spatial adaptation which a vernacular system shaped by the pressures of the built environment, transportation infrastructure, and the cultural memory of its immigrant community.
5.3 Cultural Expression and Color Semiotics
Some Korean visitors note visual similarities between Koreatown signage and that of Seoul's older commercial zones like Euljiro or Cheonggyecheon. However, the broader urban context in Los Angeles, with its automobile-centered streets and horizontally expansive layout, results in a distinct visual rhythm. What appears similar in content differs in spatial experience.
There is no direct evidence that Korean signmakers in Los Angeles intentionally replicate the signage of 1970s–80s Korea, but the visual parallels are unmistakable. During that era, Korean street signs often featured hand-painted Hangul in red, blue, or black on yellow or white backgrounds that visual conventions shaped by economic constraints and technical limitations [13]. For many first-generation immigrants, these visual memories remain vivid.
While such high-contrast color schemes are also commonly found in other immigrant business districts across Los Angeles for their affordability and visibility, their combination with Hangul contextualizes them within a Korean cultural frame which particularly for those who associate such aesthetics with past Korean urban environments. In Koreatown, these color choices function not only as a commercial strategy but also as a form of cultural recall which visually encoding identity and continuity. Their persistence may not always be a conscious act of historical replication but likely stems from aesthetic familiarity [12] and a shared visual memory that continues to shape the neighborhood’s typographic character [10].
6. Discussion
The typographic environment of Koreatown reflects overlapping systems of identity, economy, and adaptation. On the one hand, signage fulfills practical needs: to advertise, to be seen, to sell. On the other, it performs cultural work: signaling belonging, memory, and distinction.
While certain strategies, such as the use of high-contrast colors, are not exclusive to Korean businesses, their framing through Hangul typography contextualizes them as culturally “Korean” within this neighborhood. The same signage may be read in different ways depending on the viewer. For non-Korean audiences, Hangul functions as a cultural marker which signifying “Koreanness” and distinguishing Koreatown within the broader urban fabric. For Korean Americans and first-generation immigrants, however, these signs often serve as emotional anchors which evoking nostalgia and recalling visual landscapes of past urban life in Korea. This dual readability exemplifies the layered symbolic function of immigrant typographies.
Typography in Koreatown thus operates as a cultural infrastructure: it shapes how the community sees itself and how it is seen by others. It enables both visibility and preservation. For designers and urbanists, understanding this nuanced visual language is critical to engaging multicultural neighborhoods with respect and insight.
7. Conclusion
This study examined the typographic landscape of Los Angeles’ Koreatown as a site of cultural expression and urban adaptation. Through visual documentation and analysis, it traced how immigrant identity is rendered visible through strategies of language, color, and form.
Importantly, the signage system in Koreatown is not only a product of historical reference or practical constraints, but it is also a dynamic site of meaning-making. The typographic environment invites multiple readings: for some, it is a marker of cultural specificity; for others, a visual thread to home. These coexisting interpretations underscore the significance of immigrant signage as both a functional tool and a symbolic archive which simultaneously shaping the streetscape and preserving collective memory.
8. References
[1] Kim, S. M. (2017). Visuality and the transnational urban space: Koreatown, Los Angeles (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
[2] Lee, S. S. H. (2022). Koreatown, Los Angeles: immigration, race, and the" American dream". Stanford University Press.
[3] Bae, C. J. H., & Montello, D. R. (2018). Representations of an urban ethnic neighbourhood: Residents' cognitive boundaries of Koreatown, Los Angeles. Built Environment, 44(2), 218-240.
[4] Lupton, E. (2014). Thinking with type: A critical guide for designers, writers, editors, & students. Chronicle Books.
[5] Anderson, B. (2020). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. In The new social theory reader (pp. 282-288). Routledge.
[6] Appadurai, A. (2003). The production of locality. In Counterworks (pp. 208-229). Routledge.
[7] Lou, J. J. (2016). The linguistic landscape of Chinatown: A sociolinguistic ethnography (Vol. 6). Multilingual Matters.
[8] Jiang, Y. (2018). Signs in urban spaces in ethnic enclaves: a case study of Manhattan Chinatown (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University).
[9] Bhabha, H. K., & Rutherford, J. (2006). Third space. Multitudes, 26(3), 95-107.
[10] Kim, D. B. (2007). A Study on the Expression Propensity of Typography in Korean Advertisement-Focused on Printing Advertisement after 2000year. Archives of design research, 20(1), 219-228.
[11] Sedano, E. J. (2016). Advertising, information, and space: Considering the informal regulation of the Los Angeles landscape. Environment and Planning A, 48(2), 223-238.
[12] Kim, S. M. (2017). Visuality and the transnational urban space: Koreatown, Los Angeles (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
[13] Koh, B. E. (2007). Koreatown in Los Angeles. Situations, 1.
Cities communicate through type. From towering billboards to humble storefront signage, urban typography serves as a visual language which is a collective script shaped by those who move through and inhabit the city. In immigrant neighborhoods, this language becomes layered and hybrid, shaped by movement, memory, and negotiation. These typographic expressions not only reflect the identities of their makers but also mediate the relationships between cultural heritage and contemporary urban life [1]. Koreatown in Los Angeles presents a particularly rich case of this phenomenon, where Hangul, Roman alphabets, and bilingual signage co-exist in dense, commercially driven streetscapes [2].
While Koreatown is often studied for its cultural, culinary, or demographic significance, less attention has been paid to its typographic landscape. Yet signage in Koreatown is far more than functional; it is an expressive cultural system shaped by diasporic identity and spatial adaptation. From brush-style Hangul in traditional stores to minimalist English in trendy cafes, these signs embody generational shifts, economic positioning, and community signaling [3].
This research investigates the visual language of Koreatown through field documentation and typographic analysis, focusing on how signage encodes cultural identity, adapts to urban infrastructure, and reflects patterns of migration and settlement. Drawing on methods from design research and visual anthropology, the study seeks to understand how type operates as both aesthetic form and social indicators. Particular attention is given to how recurring color schemes, typographic styles, and bilingual formats participate in a wider semiotic system that mediates belonging.
This research is grounded in both personal proximity and academic inquiry. As a Korean designer who previously relocated to Los Angeles for graduate study, I encountered Koreatown not only as a cultural landmark but as a compelling visual field. Its layered signage, multilingual expressions, and vibrant density offered a vivid reflection of diasporic identity in motion. Living and studying in Los Angeles allowed for sustained engagement with this environment that an experience that informed the direction and depth of the investigation.
Rather than treating Koreatown as a static ethnic enclave, this paper approaches it as a dynamic typographic ecology, where signs operate not only as commercial markers but also as cultural texts. The following sections build a theoretical framework, contextualize the urban site, describe the methodology of field research, and analyze findings across typographic, spatial, and cultural dimensions.
2. Theoretical Framework
Typography is both communicative and cultural. Ellen Lupton emphasizes that typography, beyond legibility, encodes emotional and social values [4]. In multilingual urban environments, typography becomes a key site of identity formation and negotiation. Benedict Anderson's concept of "imagined communities" positions language as central to constructing collective identity [5], while Arjun Appadurai's framework of "ethnoscapes" and "mediascapes" emphasizes the spatial and representational consequences of migration [6].
Urban semiotics also provides a critical lens for understanding signage. Lou introduces the notion of "semiotic re-materialization," wherein shared visual forms take on new meanings depending on cultural and linguistic context [7]. This is particularly salient in immigrant neighborhoods, where generic sign formats may acquire distinct ethnic or cultural connotations. Jiang further argue that signage in immigrant enclaves is both reflective and performative which visually asserting presence while also adapting to urban constraints [8].
This aligns with Homi Bhabha’s concept of the “third space,” wherein hybrid cultural forms emerge through processes of translation and negotiation rather than assimilation. Signage in such contexts becomes a performative interface, producing new meanings at the intersection of the familiar and the foreign. Type, in this sense, does not passively reflect cultural identity; it actively shapes and stages it [9].
Los Angeles’s Koreatown exemplifies this layered typographic ecology. As a dense, multilingual and commercially vibrant district, it presents a landscape where types become both a design decision and a cultural act. The combination of ornamental Hangul and minimalist Roman typefaces, or the use of two languages in one storefront, shows how typography helps diasporic communities express their presence, build a sense of belonging, and imagine new ways of living in the city. These theoretical frameworks collectively inform this study’s reading of Koreatown as a typographic field shaped by cultural memory, commercial intent and the spatial logics of the city, a space where design, language and identity intersect in visible and meaningful ways.
3. Koreatown, LA as a Typographic Space
Located west of Downtown Los Angeles, Koreatown emerged in the 1960s as a site of Korean migration and entrepreneurial activity. Today, it is one of the most densely populated and culturally dynamic neighborhoods in the city. Its urban fabric is defined by multi-story strip malls, car-oriented boulevards, and a high turnover of small businesses.
Olympic Boulevard, Western Avenue, and Vermont Avenue function as the neighborhood's primary commercial arteries. These streets are characterized by compact building facades, stacked signage, and a mix of temporary and permanent storefronts. Signage in these zones must contend with long viewing distances, vehicular speeds, and visual competition.
The area's typographic space is not only shaped by geography, but also by community. Hangul signage visually asserts Korean presence; English signage courts broader audiences; and bilingual signage negotiates the space in between. The repetition of certain color schemes and type styles across these signs’ hints at a vernacular design logic rooted in both heritage and adaptation.
4. Methodology
This research employed a qualitative, design-based methodology that combined field photography, typographic coding, and spatial analysis. Between the summer and fall 2022, fieldwork was conducted across three primary corridors: Olympic Boulevard, Western Avenue, and Wilshire Boulevard. Over 200 images were captured, representing a mix of signage types, building typologies, and times of day.
Each image was coded by language use (Korean, English, bilingual), typographic style (serif, sans-serif, script, brush), layout (stacked, side-by-side, integrated), and color scheme. In addition to image analysis, contextual factors such as building height, signage placement, and lighting were documented.
As a Korean researcher who relocated to LA, I brought both cultural familiarity and critical distance to the fieldwork. My background enabled me to identify typographic nuances and cultural signifiers, while also interpreting their spatial implications through a design lens.
5. Results and Analysis
5.1 Typographic Strategies
Signage in Koreatown exhibits a spectrum of linguistic and typographic strategies. Korean-only signs often draw from 1980s–90s Korean commercial typography, characterized by bold strokes, condensed forms, and pragmatic display styles. These visual choices are not only familiar to first-generation immigrants but also reflect the business environment they encountered that shaped by limited design resources, practical constraints, and analog production methods common at the time.
English-only signs, particularly in Korean-operated businesses, often adopt more modern or stylized typefaces compared to older signage. While not always minimalist, these designs are frequently associated with newer establishments aiming to appeal to a broader, often younger, audience.
Bilingual signs integrate Hangul and English either through clear hierarchy or hybrid composition, balancing cultural reference and accessibility.
The strategic placement, scale, and font selection in bilingual signage reflect both cultural positioning and commercial pragmatism. Hangul may be placed below English to signal modern branding, or above to assert cultural priority.
However, these visual patterns are not uniform. Factors such as business age, target clientele, and budget influence typographic choices. While newer establishments often adopt more modern aesthetics, older businesses tend to retain visual conventions from 1990s Korea, such as bold strokes, condensed forms, and vibrant primary colors [10]. This diversity, shaped by both intentional design and ad hoc production methods, contributes to the neighborhood’s layered and vernacular visual character.
5.2 Spatial Adaptation
The typographic landscape of Koreatown reflects a direct adaptation to Los Angeles’ car-centric infrastructure and dense urban form. Signage is designed with visibility and legibility in mind, shaped by the need to be seen from wide roads, fast-moving traffic, and across expansive parking lots [11]. Bold, high contrast typography, often sans serif and set in all capital letters, dominates the streetscape. These stylistic choices are not merely aesthetic but are spatial solutions to ensure communication across physical distance.
Illuminated lettering and vertical stacking are also common adaptive strategies. In multi-tenant buildings, signs are often stacked vertically to accommodate multiple businesses within limited facade space, creating a layered typographic rhythm that mirrors the vertical density of the built environment. This verticality allows for spatial efficiency while contributing to the visual dynamism of the street.
Color choices similarly respond to spatial demands. High visibility combinations such as red, blue, or green text on white backgrounds, and vice versa, are frequently used to enhance legibility. These color palettes not only ensure maximum contrast but also evoke the aesthetic of Korean commercial signage, blending functional visibility with cultural familiarity [12, 13].
Framing and repetition further support spatial clarity. Boxy sign borders and consistent typographic treatments create visual separation and recognition immediately, key qualities in a competitive signage saturated environment. Therefore, the signage in Koreatown exemplifies spatial adaptation which a vernacular system shaped by the pressures of the built environment, transportation infrastructure, and the cultural memory of its immigrant community.
5.3 Cultural Expression and Color Semiotics
Some Korean visitors note visual similarities between Koreatown signage and that of Seoul's older commercial zones like Euljiro or Cheonggyecheon. However, the broader urban context in Los Angeles, with its automobile-centered streets and horizontally expansive layout, results in a distinct visual rhythm. What appears similar in content differs in spatial experience.
There is no direct evidence that Korean signmakers in Los Angeles intentionally replicate the signage of 1970s–80s Korea, but the visual parallels are unmistakable. During that era, Korean street signs often featured hand-painted Hangul in red, blue, or black on yellow or white backgrounds that visual conventions shaped by economic constraints and technical limitations [13]. For many first-generation immigrants, these visual memories remain vivid.
While such high-contrast color schemes are also commonly found in other immigrant business districts across Los Angeles for their affordability and visibility, their combination with Hangul contextualizes them within a Korean cultural frame which particularly for those who associate such aesthetics with past Korean urban environments. In Koreatown, these color choices function not only as a commercial strategy but also as a form of cultural recall which visually encoding identity and continuity. Their persistence may not always be a conscious act of historical replication but likely stems from aesthetic familiarity [12] and a shared visual memory that continues to shape the neighborhood’s typographic character [10].
6. Discussion
The typographic environment of Koreatown reflects overlapping systems of identity, economy, and adaptation. On the one hand, signage fulfills practical needs: to advertise, to be seen, to sell. On the other, it performs cultural work: signaling belonging, memory, and distinction.
While certain strategies, such as the use of high-contrast colors, are not exclusive to Korean businesses, their framing through Hangul typography contextualizes them as culturally “Korean” within this neighborhood. The same signage may be read in different ways depending on the viewer. For non-Korean audiences, Hangul functions as a cultural marker which signifying “Koreanness” and distinguishing Koreatown within the broader urban fabric. For Korean Americans and first-generation immigrants, however, these signs often serve as emotional anchors which evoking nostalgia and recalling visual landscapes of past urban life in Korea. This dual readability exemplifies the layered symbolic function of immigrant typographies.
Typography in Koreatown thus operates as a cultural infrastructure: it shapes how the community sees itself and how it is seen by others. It enables both visibility and preservation. For designers and urbanists, understanding this nuanced visual language is critical to engaging multicultural neighborhoods with respect and insight.
7. Conclusion
This study examined the typographic landscape of Los Angeles’ Koreatown as a site of cultural expression and urban adaptation. Through visual documentation and analysis, it traced how immigrant identity is rendered visible through strategies of language, color, and form.
Importantly, the signage system in Koreatown is not only a product of historical reference or practical constraints, but it is also a dynamic site of meaning-making. The typographic environment invites multiple readings: for some, it is a marker of cultural specificity; for others, a visual thread to home. These coexisting interpretations underscore the significance of immigrant signage as both a functional tool and a symbolic archive which simultaneously shaping the streetscape and preserving collective memory.
8. References
[1] Kim, S. M. (2017). Visuality and the transnational urban space: Koreatown, Los Angeles (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
[2] Lee, S. S. H. (2022). Koreatown, Los Angeles: immigration, race, and the" American dream". Stanford University Press.
[3] Bae, C. J. H., & Montello, D. R. (2018). Representations of an urban ethnic neighbourhood: Residents' cognitive boundaries of Koreatown, Los Angeles. Built Environment, 44(2), 218-240.
[4] Lupton, E. (2014). Thinking with type: A critical guide for designers, writers, editors, & students. Chronicle Books.
[5] Anderson, B. (2020). Imagined communities: Reflections on the origin and spread of nationalism. In The new social theory reader (pp. 282-288). Routledge.
[6] Appadurai, A. (2003). The production of locality. In Counterworks (pp. 208-229). Routledge.
[7] Lou, J. J. (2016). The linguistic landscape of Chinatown: A sociolinguistic ethnography (Vol. 6). Multilingual Matters.
[8] Jiang, Y. (2018). Signs in urban spaces in ethnic enclaves: a case study of Manhattan Chinatown (Doctoral dissertation, Columbia University).
[9] Bhabha, H. K., & Rutherford, J. (2006). Third space. Multitudes, 26(3), 95-107.
[10] Kim, D. B. (2007). A Study on the Expression Propensity of Typography in Korean Advertisement-Focused on Printing Advertisement after 2000year. Archives of design research, 20(1), 219-228.
[11] Sedano, E. J. (2016). Advertising, information, and space: Considering the informal regulation of the Los Angeles landscape. Environment and Planning A, 48(2), 223-238.
[12] Kim, S. M. (2017). Visuality and the transnational urban space: Koreatown, Los Angeles (Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign).
[13] Koh, B. E. (2007). Koreatown in Los Angeles. Situations, 1.